Naturopathy
Gastro-Intestinal Herbs

© Karen Thompson, 18th June 1996.

Index / Table of Contents

Disclaimer & Warning

Herbal remedies should not be administered by amateurs. Many plants that cure can also injure, maim or kill. The advice of a suitably qualified naturopath or herbalist should be sought before consuming any herbal medicine.
The author and poster of this page holds no responsibility for the consequences of acting upon the information contained herein.

Some countries deem particular herbs or preparations of herbs described in this page to be illegal to distribute, possess or consume. The information presented was relevant to Australian statutes as they stood at the time of writing (1996).
Do not attempt to obtain any herbal remedies that your country, state or municipality has banned.

All care has been taken to ensure the accuracy of the information in this document, but it is intended for general and background information only.
No responsibility is accepted for any inaccuracies contained in this document.

Aloe vera

Common name: Aloe

Part used: Sap of leaves

Active constituents: Anthraquinone - related glycosides - aloins, aloe - emodin, resin, polysaccharides, sterols, gelonins, chromones (1, 6).

Actions: Stimulating laxative, soothing and healing to mucous membranes, uterine stimulant, antethelmintic, purgative, cholagogue, antifungal, stops bleeding, sedative (1, 6), in shampoos for dry itchy scalps, reduces scarring, speeds cell regeneration, compounds in the leaf juice are added to sun creams to protect against UV rays and have shown anti-cancer activity (5).

Indications: Atonic constipation, locally - burns, wounds, rashes, stings and bites, suppressed menstruation (1, 6), colonic irrigation (7), radiation burns, coral wounds, dermatitis, eczema and poison ivy rash (2, 5).

Caution:

• Pregnancy - anthraquinone glycosides are strongly purgative (1, 4)
• High doses of leaves can cause vomiting (1).

Dosage: External use only.

Althea officinalis

Common name: Marshmallow

Part used: Root at least 2 years old collected in autumn (15)

Active constituents: Mucilage, flavonoids, phenolic acids, starch, pectin, sucrase, fat, asparagine, tannins (1, 15), phytoesterol (6)

Actions: Demulcent on exposed epithelial and mucous membrane surfaces esp., skin, mouth, and GIT - acts by reflex to loosen coughs and bronchial secretions, calms, urinary inflammation and spasm, diuretic, emollient, vulnerary, expectorant (1, 6, 11, 15).

Indications: To soothe external wounds and burns (1, 6), internally - stomach and SI inflammation, gastritis (15), peptic ulcers, enteritis, hiatus hernia, oesophagitis, UTI or stones (1, 6), ulcerative colitis, as a poultice in furnunculosis, eczema and dermatitis, mouthwash for inflammation of the mouth and pharynx (15), respiratory catarrh with irritating cough, cystitis, locally for varicose and thrombotic ulcers (11), coughs and bronchial complaints, gastric inflammation (7), insomnia, diarrhoea (5).

Specific indications: Gastric or duodenal ulcer (11).

Combinations: Symphytum in gastric ulcers, Glycyrrhiza and marrubium for cough, Ulmus for local applications (11).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Angelica archangelica

Common name: Angelica

Part used: Leaves, root (1, 4).

Active constituents: Volatile oil, bitter principles, tannin, resin, coumarins, valerianic acid (1, 6), angelic acid (4).

Actions: Warming digestive tonic, relaxing expectorant (7), antispasmodic, carminitive, diuretic (1, 4, 6, 7), diaphoretic, topical - anti-inflammatory, anti-rheumatic, uterine stimulant (1). Topically antiinflammatory (11).

Indications:

• Convalescence from debility, conditions esp., with feelings of chill or cold, improves debilitated digestive and hepatic conditions, fever management when the disease is well entrenched (6), asthmatic conditions and kids respiratory ailments (2, 6). Flatulent dyspepsia, pleurisy (4, 11).
• Leaf. Indigestion and bronchial spasms
• Root. Indigestion, bronchial spasms, stimulating to the liver and appetite (1), rheumatism (5), for chills in influenza, uterine stimulant in prolonged labour or retention of placenta (1). Anorexia nervosa (4).

Specific Indications:

• Pleurisy and bronchitis on a compress as a leaf.
• Root. bronchitis associated with vascular deficiency (11).

Combinations:

• Chamaemelum for anorexia and dyspepsia (11).
• For bronchial problems - coltsfoot, Marrubium vulgare (4).

• Crushed leaves in car interiors reduce travel nausea. (5)
• It's also easy to confuse with Cicuta maculata, when harvesting.

Cautions :

• Avoid regular or high doses in pregnancy - uterine stimulant
• Avoid in diabetes - due to sugar content
• Oil can increase photosensitivity, so avoid excess exposure to sun if using it externally (1).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Artemisia absinthium

Common name: Wormwood

Part used: Leaves or flowering tops (4).

Active constituents: Volatile oil, bitter sesquiterpene lactones, terpenoids, flavonoids, triterpenoids, hydroxycoumarins, tannins, silica, resin.(6)

Actions: Bitter, stomachic, choleretic, anthelmintic (11), tonic to GIT, liver, gall bladder and blood, reduces inflammation, alterative, reduces the toxicity of lead poisoning (5) carminitive (4).

Indications: Digestive debility, anorexia, atonic gastritis, enterbiuse ascaris infestations.(6) Fevers (5), indigestion esp. with low HCL, infections (4).

Specific Indications: Infestation with enterobius or ascaris. (11)

Combinations: Juglans for a vermifuge in children (11).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Berberis aquifolium

Common name: Oregon grape

Part used: Rhizome and roots

Active constituents: Alkaloids incl. berberine (6).

Actions: Cholagogue, mild laxative, alterative, digestive stimulant and tonic (6), anti-diarrheal (7), anti-inflammatory, liver tonic (5).

Indications: To skin, joint and other inflammatory diseases associated with hepatic,digestive and bowel defects (6), gastritis, psoriasis and eczema (7), appetite stimulant, suppress nausea, reduce rheumatic inflammation (5).

Caution:
Avoid during pregnancy (5).

Dosage: Medium dose

Berberis vulgaris

Common name: Barberry

Part used: Bark of stem and root, root and berries (7).

Active constituents: Alkaloids incl. berberine, chelidonic acid, tannins, wax (6).

Actions: Cholagogue, hepatic stimulant, stimulating digestive tonic (6). Antemetic, tonic to spleen, causes splenic contractions (11). Antipyretic, anti-haemorrhagic, anti-inflammatory and antiseptic (7), berries juice strengthens gums and are laxative, cooling. The root bark is anti-bacterial, anti-inflammatory, liver problems from alcohol abuse. The stem bark dilates blood vessels (5).

Indications: Gallstones, biliary infections, H/O dietary and alcohol abuse or excessive exposure to drugs, chemicals or pollutants, splenic enlargement, leishmaniasis, malaria (6). Jaundice (11). Atonic gallbladder (3).

Specific Indications: Gallstones (11).

Combinations: Chionanthus and or veronicastrum in GB disease (11) - Leptandra and Chionanthus in GB disease (4).

Caution:

• Must avoid in pregnancy and in excessive doses (4, 5, 6).
• Avoid in diarrhoea (11).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Cassia spp.

Common name: Senna

Part used: Fruit and leaves (6).

Active constituents: Anthraquinones, flavonoids, resin, tartaric acid, mucilage, traces of tannins. (6)

Actions: Laxative(6) Fruit - cathartic, leaf is stronger than the fruit (4, 11), vermifuge, diuretic (3).

Indications: Constipation with anal fissures or haemorrhoids, flaccid or atonic constipation - best only for short periods. (6)

Combinations: Glycyrrhiza, zingiber, elettaria, foeniculum vulgare to increase palatability and decrease griping. (4, 11)

Caution:

• Intestinal obstruction, colonopathies, appendicitis, abdo pains of unknown origin.
• Pregnancy and lactation (6).
• Not recommended for tense or spastic constipation (15).

Dosage: Medium dose

Chelidonium majus

Common name: Greater celandine

Part used: Aerial parts (5) or root (4).

Active constituents: Alkaloids - chelidonine (inhibits mitosis) (4, 3). Bitter principle, volatile oil (6).

Actions: Cholagogue, bitter, antispasmodic to bile duct and bronchi (3), diuretic (4, 5), laxative (6). Mild sedative (3), alterative (7). Chinese medicine use it as an analgesic, antitussive, anti-inflammatory and detoxificant (7), liver stimulant (5). Antispasmodic to the stomach (4).

Indications: To gallstones and GB disease, cleans the liver and bowels (6), digestive pains, jaundice, reduces rheumatoid swelling (5).

Topically: tinea, eczema, verruca and malignant tumours of the skin (11). Fresh milky juice removes warts (3). Jaundice (7).

Specific Indications: Gallstones (11)

Combinations: Berberis and taraxacum for GB disease (11).

Caution:
Avoid excessive dose (4, 11)

Dosage: Medium dose.

Chionanthus virginicus

Common name: Fringe tree

Part used: Root bark (5).

Active constituents: Phyllyrin, a lignan glycoside, saponins (4).

Actions: Laxative, cholagogue, antemetic, hepatic stimulant (4, 11), alterative, diuretic, tonic (4, 7), aperient (8), stimulates appetite (5).

Indications: Hepatic disease, cholecystitis, duodenitis, glycosuria of hepatic or alimentary origin, splenic enlargement, portal hypertension (11), jaundice, intestinal congestion and inflammation, pancreatitis, low pancreatic enzyme secretions, glycosuria of hepatic origin (8), for debilitated illnesses esp. when related liver function, poultice for wounds, bruises and inflammation (5).

Specific Indications: Hepatic disease with icterus and glycosuria (11).

Combinations: Echinacea in Weil's disease and acute parenchymal disease of the liver (11). For the treatment of liver and gallbladder - Barberry, Wahoo and Wild Yam (4).

Caution:
Considered slightly narcotic (8).

Dosage: Medium dose

Cynara scolymus

Common name: Globe artichoke

Part used: Leaf, flower and root (5).

Active constituents: Cyaropicrin - bitter principle (3).

Actions: Antitoxic to liver, regenerates liver cells, causes hyperemia to the liver, analgesic, decreases nausea and retching, decreases blood fats (3), cholagogue, antibiotic properties (5).

Indications: Gallstone disease, arteriosclerosis, hyperlipaemia (3), anaemia, liver damage from alcohol, toxins and hepatitis.

Dosage: Medium dose.

Fumaria officinalis

Common name: Fumitory

Part used: Dried aerial parts collected during the flowering period (15).

Active constituents: Alkaloids, bitter principles, mucilage, resin, (6) flavonoids (15).

Actions: Antispasmodic, choleretic, laxative, diuretic (6, 15). Antiseptic, tonic, anti-inflammatory for stomach disease, liver complaints and skin infections (7), alterative, externally it fades freckles, antiseptic, anti-inflammatory lotion for spots and eczema (5).

Indications: Alterative esp. for chronic skin diseases where liver or bile disturbances seem significant - eczema or acne (4), migraines, calm biliary colic in GB disease (6). Eye lotion for conjunctivitis (4, 11). Scabs, pimples, blotches and wheals (7).

Specific Indications: Chronic eczema (11)

Combinations: Arctium lappa or Galium (11).

Caution:

• Pregnancy and lactation (15).
• Large doses can cause diarrhoea and respiratory failure (5).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Gentiana lutea

Common name: Gentian

Part used: Root (1, 15).

Active constituents: Bitter principles (1, 6, 15), oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, xanthones, phenolic acids, volatile oil (15), alkaloids (1, 6, 15), flavonoids (1).

Actions: Bitter digestive stimulant (1, 6, 15), anti-inflammatory (1, 2, 6), febrifuge (1). Tonic (7), nerve tonic and the ancient Greeks used it as an antidote to poisons (5), sialogogue, cholagogue (4), emmenogogue (2).

Indications: Atonic digestive diseases, anorexia (1, 6, 15), intestinal and gastric inflammation, hepatic and GB disease (1, 6), fever management (1, 6), chronic inflammatory disease with poor digestion, jaundice (1, 6). Improves gastric tone (3). Dyspepsia, gastritis, heartburn, nausea, diarrhoea (7), amenorrhoea, arthritis (2).

Specific Indications: Dyspepsia with anorexia (11).

Combinations: Zingiber and Elatteria, Rheum palmatum. (11)

Caution:
With sensitive, irritable stomach with an excess of acid (3).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Geranium maculatum

Common name: American cranesbill

Part used: Herb and root (11).

Active constituents: Gallitannins (6).

Actions: Astringent (4, 6), anti-haemorrhagic, vulnerary (4, 11). Styptic, tonic (7) anti-inflammatory (4).

Indications: To control symptoms of diarrhoea and to reduce intestinal inflammations as in peptic ulcers, enteritis and bowel disease. As a mouthwash for diseases of mouth, gum and throat. As a douche for vaginal infections (6). Haemorrhoids, haematemesis, melena, menorhaggia, metrorhaggia. Topical for leucorrhea, indolent ulcers. (4, 11)

Specific Indications: Diarrhoea esp. in young and the old. Peptic ulcer. (11)

Combinations: Beum, agrimonia for duodenal ulcer. Bidens in hemorrhage from GIT, Trilleum as douche in leucorrhea (4, 11).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Hydrastis canadensis

Common name: Golden seal

Part used: Root and rhizome (4).

Active constituents: Alkaloids incl. berberine, hydrastine and candaine, volatile oil, resin (6).

Actions: Anti-haemorrhagic, choleretic, antimicrobial, (15) astringent, tonic, digestive and bile stimulant, anticatarrhal, laxative, vulnerary to gastric mucous membrane, hypertensive (1, 6). Stimulant to involuntary muscle, oxytocic, laxative (11). Alterative, anti-inflammatory, antibacterial, amoebicidal (7), tonic to the mucous membranes, liver and uterus and for venous circulation (5), immune stimulant, berberine calms the uterus in some studies, but other studies show a stimulation effect (2).

Indications:

• Menorhaggia, wash for skin when inflamed - eczema and measles, gastritis, (1, 6, 15) mucous colitis, nasal inflammation, ear infections, menopausal symptoms, dysmenorrhea, PMS - linked to stagnation, gastroenteritis, vaginal discharge, sluggish digestion with associated food sensitivity and alcohol excess.
• Gargle for mouth ulcers, gum disease, sore throat and catarrhal conditions. Douche for vaginal discharges and infections - thrush and itching. Eardrops for otitis media and blocked ears.(1, 6)
• Topical for eczema, pruritis, otorhea, catarrhal deafness, and tinnitus, conjunctivitis (11). Dyspepsia, peptic ulceration, menorhaggia. Topical for conjunctivitis, eczema and inflammation of the ear (7), menorrhagia, postpartum hemorrhage, several studies have shown it shrinks tumours (2).

Specific Indications: Atonic dyspepsia with hepatic symptoms (11).

Combinations:

• Vitex agnus castus for menopausal hot flushes.
• Euphrasia spp. for hayfever (6).
• Filipendula and Chamaemelum for the stomach.
• Trilleum for uterine hemorrhage.

• Passiflora and Hammamelis leaf in pruritis.
• Commiphora mol mol resin, echinacea, verbascum and eucalyptus globulus as ear drops, with Hammamelis leaf and euphrasia as eye lotion (11).

Caution:

• Avoid in pregnancy - uterine stimulant (1, 4, 6).
• High BP - hypertensive (1, 6).
• Dont use as eardrops if a risk of ruptured eardrum
• Eating the fresh plant can cause ulceration of the mucous membranes (1).

Dosage: Medium dose

Leptandra virginica

Common name: Black root

Part used: Rhizome and roots (4, 6).

Active constituents: Bitter principle - leptandrin, volatile oil, saponin, phytosterols, glycoside - resembling senegin, tannins, resin. (6)

Actions: Cholagogue, mild cathartic, diaphoretic, antispasmodic (4).

Indications: Chronic congestive conditions of the bowel and digestion (6), liver congestion, inflamed GB, jaundice due to liver congestion, chronic constipation (4).

Combinations: Barberry and taraxacum (4).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Mentha x piperita

Common name: Peppermint

Part used: Leaf

Active constituents: Volatile oil (1, 6, 15), flavonoids (1, 15), phenolic acids, triterpenes (15), tannins (1, 6), carotenoids (15), choline (1, 15), betaine, minerals (15), tocopherols (1), bitter principle (1, 6).

Actions: Carminitive, antispasmodic for the gut and lower bowel, peripheral vasodilator, diaphoretic and paradoxical cooling effect, cholagogue, bitter, digestive tonic, calms nausea, analgesic (1, 6, 15). Locally antiseptic, antipruritic (11), repels mice and rats (5), nervine, analgesic (4), anaesthetic, decongestant (2).

Indications: calming digestive upsets - (dyspepsia, vomiting, spastic or nervous bowel, flatulence, colic, diarrhoea), vomiting of pregnancy, managing fevers esp. in the hot stages, biliary disorders, migraines, compress - rheumatism or neuralgia, inhale - nasal congestion (1, 6, 15). Crohn's disease, migraine headaches when associated with digestion (4), menstrual upsets.

Specific Indications: Flatulent digestive pains (11).

Combinations: Sambucas and Achillea or eupatorium perforatum in influenzal colds (4, 11).

Cautions :

• Can irritate the mucous membranes and shouldn't be given to children for > 1wk without a break.
• Dont give any form directly to babies
• Can decrease milk flow (1)

Dosage: Medium dose.

Peumus boldo

Common name: Boldo

Part used: Leaves (4).

Active constituents: Volatile oil, alkaloids incl. boldine, glycoside, resin, tannins (6).

Actions: Cholagogue, bitter digestive stimulant, analgesic, urinary antiseptic (6). Urinary demulcent, sedative, liver stimulant (4, 11). Mild diuretic (5, 7), slimming aid (5) sedative (4).

Indications: Gallstones, GB infection and biliary colic or other hepatic related pain in the viscera (4, 6), urinary pains (6). Cystitis, rheumatism (11).

Specific Indications: Cholelithiasis with pain (11).

Combinations: Berberis (aquifolium 4), Chionanthus for GB stones or hepatic disease (11).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Quercus robur

Common name: Oak bark

Part used: Bark (4)

Active constituents: Condensed and hydrolysed tannins (6).

Actions: Strongly astringent (5, 6), haemostatic, antiseptic (5, 7, 11), precipitant (3), antiinflammatory (4).

Indications: Acute diarrhoea, to control the loss from the bowel, locally as a mouthwash and gargle for discharging, bleeding or infected mucous membranes in the mouth and throat, local for (as an enema for haemorrhoids (7)), douche for cervical and vaginal discharges (6). Pharyngitis, tonsillitis as a gargle (11), compress for burns, cuts, powder for nose bleeds (5).

Specific Indications: Acute diarrhoea (11).

Combinations: Zingiber or capsicum before meals (4, 11).

Note: Oak bark provides a leather tan, and as leather tanners seemed immune to tuberculosis, the bark was used for treatment of the disease (5).

Dosage: Medium dose

Rhamnus purshiana

Common name: Cascara

Part used: Bark (15).

Active constituents: Anthraquinone glycosides, tannin, volatile oil (6).

Actions: Stimulating laxative (2, 6, 15). Mild purgative (11), stimulates peristalsis (7), bitter tonic, alterative, hepatic, stomachic, febrifuge (3).

Indications: Conditions where a soft stool is needed - anal fissures and haemorrhoids, (15) atonic constipation (6, 11). Habitual constipation, dyspepsia, digestive complaints (7).

Combinations: Cassia fruit, berberis, glycyrrhiza and zingiber in constipation - aromatics and carminitives. (4, 11)

Caution:

• Pregnancy and lactation.
• Intestinal obstruction (15).

Dosage: Medium dose.

Rheum palmatum

Common name: Rhubarb

Part used: Root (1).

Active constituents: Anthraquinones, tannins, calcium oxalate, resins, minerals, (1) flavonoids (15). Bitter aromatic (4).

Actions: Laxative, astringent, stomachic, digestive remedy, antibacterial (1, 15), antiseptic, anti-inflammatory (5) bitter stomachic (4), emmenogogue (2).

Indications:

• Low doses - diarrhoea
• Medium doses - liver stimulant and gentle laxative
• High doses - strong cooling and purgative effect - use carminitives to stop griping (1).
• Cramps with menstruation, Topically: - boils and suppurating skin, haemorrhoids when a soft stool is needed, gastroenteritis (15).
  In Chinese medicine, the rhizome disperses blood clots, cleanses the liver, jaundice, fevers and abdominal pain, compress for burns and ulcers, Chinese research shows it inhibits cancer cells (5), amenorrhoea (2).

Caution:

• Pregnancy and lactation
• Ileus and renal disease
• The oxalates in Rheum should be avoided in gout and arthritic conditions
• Leaves are toxic and fatalities have been reported (1).

Note: The herb may cause a yellow colouring of the urine (4).

Dosage: Medium dose

Silybum marianum

Common name: Milk thistle, variegated thistle.

Part used: Seeds (6).

Active constituents: Flavolignans - silybin, flavonoids - silymarin, bitter principle (6).

Actions: Regeneration of hepatic cells and protects against poisons, cholagogue, (6) promotes lactation, demulcent (3, 4).

Indications: Chronic liver disease, aids rehabilitation after acute hepatitis, GB disease, whenever alcohol, drug or dietary abuse or exposures to chemical pollution threatens liver function (6), coughs, depression and digestive, liver (alcohol damage, chronic hepatitis, cirrhosis and cadmium poisoning) and spleen disorders, to prevent travel sickness and heart disease (5).

Dosage: Medium dose

Symphytum officinale

Common name: Comfrey

Part used: Root and leaves

Active constituents: Mucilage, gum, allantoin, tannins, resin, pyrrolizidine alkaloids, inulin, B12, protein, asparagine (1, 6, 15), calcium, potassium, phosphorus (5).

Actions: Vulnerary, demulcent, cell proliferator, astringent, expectorant (1, 4, 6, 15) Antihaemorrhagic, antirheumatic, antiinflammatory (11), anti-psoriatic (7).

Indications: Slow healing wounds, internal wounds, strains or bone fractures, gut wall erosion, bronchtiic conditions, dry coughs, poultice - varicose ulcers, bleeding haemorrhoids. (1, 2, 6, 15) Rheumatic pain, arthritis. Topical for bruises and sprains, athletes foot, crural ulcers, mastitis (11), gastric sedative, painful joints, poultice for psoriasis, eczema and ulcers (7).
Research suggests that the whole plant may have anticancer properties (5).

Specific Indications: Gastric ulcers, Topically: - varicose ulcers. (11)

Combinations: For sprain use jacobaea, Sambucas leaf. For gastric ulcer - Filipendula and or Althea. Althea for external application.

Cautions :

• Pryolizidine alkaloids are hepato toxic (6).
• Avoid using on dirty wounds, as rapid healing can trap dirt or pus. (1)

Dosage: Medium dose

Note: This herb is now unavailable for internal use by herbalists.

Ulmus fulva

Common name: Slippery elm

Part used: Dried inner bark (15)

Active constituents: Mucilage, starch, tannin, minerals. (6, 15)

Actions: Demulcent, emollient and nutritive (6, 15), antitussive (7), emollient, nutritive and astringent (3, 4).

Indications: GIT inflammation and ulcerations - oesophagitis, gastritis, colitis, gastric or duodenal ulcers, diarrhoea, locally for boils, abscesses, minor wounds and burns. (4, 6, 15)

Combinations: Althea for digestive problems (4).

Dosage: As a food with enough water to prevent constipation.

References

1. Ody, P. The Complete Medicinal Herbal.
   London Dorling Kindersly Limited, 1993.
2. Castleman P. The Healing Herbs.
   Melbourne Schwartz Books, 1991.
3. Weiss, R.F. Herbal Medicine.
   Stuttgart Hippocrates Verlag GmbH, 1988.
4. Hoffmann, D. An Elder's Herbal.
   Rochester Healing Arts Press, 1993.
5. Bremness, L. Herbs.
   Pymble Harper Collins Publishers, 1994.
6. Mills, S.Y. The A-Z of Modern Herbalism.
   London Harper Collins Publishers, 1989.
7. Wren, R.C. Potter's New Cyclopaedia of Botannical Drugs and Preparations.
   Essex The C.W. Daniel Company Ltd, 1988.
8. Willard, T. The Rose Scientific Herbal.
   Calgary Wild Rose College of Natural Healing Ltd, 1991.
9. Fluck, H. Medicinal Plants.
   England W. Foulsham & Co. Ltd., 1973.
10. Raymond, M. Herbal Therapeutics - Gastro-Intestinal Herbs.
    Nature Care, Sydney, 1996.
11. British Herbal Pharmacopeia. Scientific Committee. United Kingdom
    British Herbal Medicine Association, 1983.
12. Rahway, N.J. Merck Manual. 16th Edition.
    Merck Research Laboratories, 1992.
13. Murray, M. Pizzorno, J. Encyclopaedia of Natural Medicine.
    LondonMacdonald Optima, 1995.
14. Mosby's Medical Nursing & Allied Health Dictionary. 4th Edition. USA
    The Clarinda Company, 1990.
15. British Herbal Compendium

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